Marine Products

Chitosan is a close derivative of chitin, the second-most prevalent biopolymer in the world.

The exterior skeleton of shellfish, such as crab, lobster, and shrimp, contains a sugar called chitosan. It is employed in the production of drugs and as medication. A fiber protein called chitosan may limit the amount of fat and cholesterol that the body absorbs from the diet. When administered to wounds, it also facilitates blood clotting.

The primary structural element of the exoskeletons of crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimp, as well as the cell walls of fungus, is chitin, which naturally exists as organised microfibrils. Chitin is often transformed into its deacetylated derivative, chitosan, for use in biomedical applications.

Deacetylation

The process of removing acetyl groups from chitin and replacing them with reactive amino groups is known as “deacetylation.”

Due to its high hydrogen bonding, chitin exhibits low reactivity and solubility in most solvents in its natural state. This can be overcome by deacetylation.

FUNCTIONALITIES

In addition to its many chemical features, chitosan exhibits a wide range of biological qualities, including but not confined to the following:

• Biocompatible:

1. 1. 1. Natural polymer
      2. Safe and non-toxic
      3. Biodegradable

• Binds to mammalian and microbial cells
• Tissue regeneration
• Accelerates formation of osteoblasts
• Haemostatic
• Fungistatic
• Bactericidal
• Antitumor or Anticancer
• Anticholesteremic
• Central nervous system depressant
• Immunoadjuvant

APPLICATIONS:

Chitosan is a biopolymer material technology that may be used alone or as a platform. It may be developed to address issues in a variety of application areas. Chitosan’s flexibility is largely due to its key properties, which also include biocompatibility, non-toxicity, anti-microbial, hemeostatic effects, and many more. High-grade, mid-grade, and industrial grades of chitosan are commonly divided based on their purity, quality, and production and handling procedures.

Applications of High-Grade Chitosan in Medicine:

• Biomedical
• Drug-delivery
• Medical device
• Pharmaceutical
• Wound care

Applications in Food and Industry of Medium-Grade Chitosan:

• Dietary supplement
• Food and beverages
• Agriculture
• Textiles
• Cosmetics and Toiletries
• Animal feed additive

SUBSTITUTE:

1. Application of chitosan in Technical Textile

• Chitosan in textiles’ antibacterial finishes:

Natural fibre-based textile goods are easily attacked and harmed by microorganisms in moist environments. This might result in the spread of diseases and endanger people’s health. As a result, antibacterial finishes for textile items are growing in popularity globally. Chitosan is a great substitute for the synthetic compounds that are used to enhance the antibacterial properties of textiles. Chitosan can be used in one of two ways to give fabrics an antibacterial treatment. To begin, we can apply chitosan to the fabric’s surface and fix it using catalysts and cross-linking agents. For instance, we can graft chitosan onto the surface of the fabric using sodium dihydrogen phosphate as a catalyst and citric acid as a cross-linking agent. Then, we set them in place using UV irradiation. In the other method, we may create a thread with strong antibacterial characteristics called chiropody using the chitosan polymer. We can then create a textile item with antibacterial qualities using this thread.

• Chitosan used in textile anti-wrinkle finishing:

Natural fibres like silk, cotton, and hemp have limited elasticity and wrinkling resistance qualities, which lead to wrinkling and permanent deformation. Therefore, any mechanical force—internal or external—can quickly harm their comfort and beauty. However, utilising fibre modification, altering the fabric’s structure, fibre mixing, or finishing might enhance the fabric’s anti-wrinkle qualities. Chitosan, for instance, can be used as an anti-wrinkle treatment for textile items created specifically from natural fibres. The fibre micro-pores are filled with chitosan macromolecules, which establish a significant number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl and amino groups of chitosan and the polar residues of the fibre molecules. As a result, the amorphous portions of the fibres are strengthened, and their mobility is reduced, giving the fabric wrinkle resistance. Thus we can develop wrinkle resistance properties in the fabrics by applying a chitosan finish.

• Chitosan in finishing and colouring textiles:

Chitosan was initially used as a color-deepening agent in the textile industry. Chitosan is a superior fixative for anionic dyes since it is a cationic polymer. Chitosan enables salt-free colouring when combined with other substances. Chitosan’s ability to create a uniform coating on the surface of the fibre can be used to explain its level dyeing effect. The fiber’s surface properties are enhanced, Coulomb repulsion between the fibre and anionic dyes is reduced, and dye absorption rate is significantly increased. The free amino group on the chitosan molecule is protonated in acidic conditions, which also adds to the deepening effect.

• Chitosan in textile antistatic finishing:

Garments cling to the skin because polyester materials are prone to static electricity. Employees in the industrial sector who work with delicate electronic equipment must wear antistatic clothes. Antistatic fabric finishing is thus growing in popularity among those involved in the textile industry. Because NH3 + is a part of chitosan’s molecular structure, chitosan-finished fibres have an ion-conducting activity in water that enables the fast discharge of static charges generated by friction. Electrical neutralisation takes place while the chitosan molecule’s charge is in opposition to the surface charge of the fibre. In addition, the chitosan molecules are extremely hygroscopic due to the large number of strong polar groups they contain, such as hydroxyl and amino groups, which causes a persistent water film to form on the surface of the fibre. This water coating can partially dissolve electrolytes in the fibres and carbon dioxide in the air, enhancing the fabric’s electrical conductivity and providing polyester fabrics their antistatic properties.

2. Application of chitosan in Agriculture

• Use of Chitosan as Controlled-Released factor:

The widespread practise of applying chemical fertilisers without discrimination is a serious issue. Nutrient delivery to plant needs and maintaining nutrient absorption relies on the prudent application of fertiliser and enhanced nutrient utilisation capabilities while reducing harmful toxicity.

Controlled-release fertilisers (CRF) are those that only temporarily delay the delivery of nutrients. However, management practises including storage, transportation, field supply, moisture content, and biological activity can have a significant impact on variables like the length of release. In recent times, chitosan use in controlled-release fertiliser is still in the early stages. However, due to its biodegradability, environmental friendliness, and other outstanding qualities, it may be a wonderful fertiliser. Additionally, water and nutrients can permeate through the surface’s porous structure. After being loaded with nitrogen components, the chitosan-based controlled-release microspheres could be released gradually into the soil to fulfil the nutritional needs of plants at different stages, increase the rate at which fertiliser is used, and decrease the loss of chemical fertiliser.

• Chitosan utilization against pest and pathogens:

30 businesses have registered more than 30 different varieties of chitosan-based biological insecticides in various nations (China, Pakistan, Canada, and India). The main dose forms are liquid, powder, suspension, and micro-emulsion, among others. Recent research revealed that chitosan (chitooligosaccharides), which is used to combat many diseases and agricultural pests, is synthesised from marine sources.

Recent studies have looked at using different concentrations of chitosan nanoparticles as growth stimulants for shoot-let trials reconstituted in vitro.

• Chitosan utilisation as pesticides:

Agriculture science had made tremendous advancements over the last century, introducing pesticides for quicker pest reduction. Moreover, developed countries realised the disadvantages during the initial phases but continued to use pesticides at a high level.

Recently, scientists are focusing on returning to nature, and several methods are being tested to reduce the pesticides in agricultural lands and control the pest population.

A number of techniques are being developed to lower the amount of pesticides used on agricultural areas and manage the insect population as a result of scientists’ recent focus on getting back to nature. In this regard, chitosan has been used in several agricultural industries and as a pesticide modification. Since lignocellulosic biomass advantages are taken into account, chitosan is presumed to be a naturally green feedstock. Several research over the past several years have clarified the creation and application of chitosan nano-particles to deliver the herbicide. In the past, pesticides have been used extensively to combat pests and microorganisms, mostly to increase agricultural output. 

• Chitosan advancement in herbicides:

The productivity loss of plant species has been greatly reduced by the use of herbicide in modern agriculture. However, several studies showed that this unnecessary application resulted to long-term risks to the environment and to human health, with herbicides being the compounds that pollute hydrological systems the most.

The use of natural polysaccharides like chitosan was investigated as a means of managing these problems. The most common herbicide, chitosan, was upgraded by a number of scientists and evaluated. The release of herbicides and their connection to the soil are replaced by chitosan nanoparticles. In addition, it was shown that chitosan nanoparticles reduced negative effects and improved herbicide responsiveness.

3. Application of chitosan in Cosmetics

Chitosan has a variety of biologically active functional qualities, such as immunoadjuvant, analgesic, antiacid, antiulcer, fungistatic, wound-healing, and anticancer capabilities. Chitosan has traditionally been utilised as a bioactive component and excipient in the cosmetic sector. This is made feasible by taking use of the low toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of chitosan.

Chitosan is now used in the manufacture of body creams, hair conditioners, hair foams, and mascaras for cosmetic purposes. The study, however, directed towards chitosan’s inclusion in cosmetic and personal care formulations for skin, dental, nail, and hair care has grown because to its numerous functional qualities. The cationicity of chitosan, which favours the interaction with damaged hair fibres and skin, as well as its antistatic, bacteriostatic, and film-forming properties, as well as its capacity for the controlled release of bioactive agents, are all utilised by the cosmetic industries. These properties are crucial to the conditioning of hair. Chitosan also exhibits high compatibility with typical cosmetic formulation components, such as starch, glucose, saccharose, polyols, oils, fats, waxes, acids, nonionic emulsifiers, and nonionic water-soluble gums. This has lately resulted in the creation and marketing of several cosmetic-grade compounds based on chitosan.

• Chitosan as Ingredient in Skin Care Products:

Chitosan is a wonderful component for skin care products because of its beneficial humectant, cleaning, antioxidant, and protective properties. Chitosan has been widely used, in particular, as an antiaging and moisturising agent, in UV protection, in skin washing, and as a booster of other important functions of the skin (protection, absorption, thermal regulation, defense, reservation, and synthesis). Chitosan’s low skin penetration, which restricts its action mechanism in the majority of formulations to the skin/external environment interface, is one of the most significant elements of its application in skin care products.

By forming a network structure and encouraging the production of collagen, chitosan deposition on the skin’s surface can aid in the healing of damaged tissue while retaining excellent air permeability. Additionally, it has strong biocompatibility and biodegradability, antibacterial, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory activities, good exudate absorption, and promotes tissue regeneration and the formation of skin collagen fibres. This encourages the usage of it as a component in a wide variety of skin care products.

Applications of Chitosan as a Humectant and Moisturizer:

Moisturizers raise the water content of the skin, enhancing skin suppleness and smoothness, whereas humectants are cosmetic formulations or substances that help to increase the water content on the upper layers of the skin. As a result, humectants may be thought of as a moisturiser component utilised to replace the natural moisturising elements present in the skin’s keratin layer. Chitosan’s cationic nature, which enables its adsorption on the negatively charged skin surface, is used in its function as a humectant. Chitosan can really adsorb on negatively charged skin surfaces, boosting stratum corneum water content and enhancing cell membrane fluidity. Additionally, the ability of the chitosan to retain moisture increases with molecular weight. This may be understood by taking into account the polymer chain’s larger number of accessible monomers, which encourages the development of intermolecular hydrogen bonds. These control how much moisture is absorbed by and retained by chitosan.

An effective method for improving chitosan’s capacity for moisture absorption is to chemically modify it by adding anionic moieties, which results in a moisturising effect that surpasses that offered by hyaluronic-acid-based solutions. As a result, anionic modified chitosans are showing promise as components to ensure effective moisture absorption and retention while applying cosmetic products.

 Skin Aging:

Chitosan has been shown to be a very effective component for addressing the issue of skin ageing. In reality, the capacity of chitosan to form films upon application on the skin surface, particularly high-molecular-weight polymers, reduces cutaneous water loss and improves the mechanical characteristics of the skin (elasticity and smoothness), playing a crucial function as a moisturising agent.

It is possible to minimise the unfavourable effects brought on by prolonged exposure to UV radiation by taking use of chitosan’s biological activity. For instance, by stimulating the pathways for collagen formation, chitosan treatment can help to lessen the macroscopic and histological damage to skin. Chitosan can also increase the activity of several antioxidant enzymes, reduce the synthesis of postinflammatory cytokines, and increase the moisture content of the skin. In order to stop UV-induced skin drying, epidermal hyperplasia, and wrinkle development, chitosan can be used. Chitosan’s ability to boost the activity of specific antioxidant enzymes and reduce the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which in turn prevents the breakdown of collagen fibres, makes this feasible.

UV Guard:

Skin photoaging can be caused by prolonged exposure to UV light, which can also cause oxidative stress and inflammatory imbalance. The development of wrinkles, dryness, uneven pigmentation, and laxity are characteristics of this. Furthermore, it is important to remember that exposure to UV radiation contributes to the development of skin cancer.

Chitosan’s UV-visible spectrum exhibits absorption bands at wavelengths below 400 nm. This makes it feasible to employ chitosan as a suitable component of sunscreen cosmetics since UV-related solar radiation has wavelengths between 320 and 400 nm for UV-A and 290 to 320 nm for UV-B, respectively.

Skin purification:

The goal of skin-cleansing methods is to eliminate from the skin any substance that could be applied to it or deposited on it by ambient air or cosmetics. Chitosan and certain of its derivatives can be used as skin cleansers by taking use of their cationic nature to provide carriers for the active chemicals that help with the cleaning process. As a result, a highly promising method for assuring the targeted release of cleansers may be used to take advantage of the interaction between the positive charges of the chitosan backbone and the anionic charges of the skin surface.

After one week of treatment with the cosmetic formulation including chitosan particles, the capacity of chitosan in the form of nanoparticles to reduce sebum levels was discovered. Additionally, even after several weeks of applying the mixture, skin oiliness might diminish. Chitosan’s capacity to form complexes with sebum and aid in its removal is related to its ability to remove sebum. Chitosan can simultaneously create a layer that stops sebum from depositing on the skin’s surface.

Antibacterial Action:

The most widely accepted explanation for the antibacterial action of chitosan when applied to skin is that the positively charged chitosan interacts with the negatively charged bacterial cell wall, causing a shrinking process that weakens the cell wall. The bacterial cell is then rendered inactive, which is highly reliant on the molecular weight and charge density of the chitosan chains. In fact, the antibacterial efficacy of chitosan increases with its molecular weight.

• Chitosan as an Ingredient in Hair Care Products:

Chitosan is an excellent component for hair care products as well as skin care products, boosting hair moisture, repairing damaged hair, and giving hair a healthy sheen. This has encouraged manufacturers to use chitosan into a variety of hair care products, such as shampoos, rinses, permanent wave agents, hair colourants, styling lotions, hair sprays, and tonics. Chitosan’s capacity to increase the rheological characteristics of cosmetic formulations or the adherence of certain components to the hair is primarily responsible for this extensive use of the substance.

The conditioning procedure is one of the most popular components of hair treatment where cationic polymers, such chitosan, are utilised. Since biological processes cannot restore the proteinic structure of damaged hair, which is characterised by a denaturalized structure with negative charges, physicochemical techniques must be used for its temporary restoration. Utilizing cationic polymers’ capacity to build a film on the surface of negatively charged surfaces allows for this. Chitosan and its cationic derivatives, in particular, interact with the negatively charged keratin surface of damaged hair fibres to generate transparent elastic films that enhance hair softness and strength while limiting damage brought on by mechanical, thermal, or environmental factors.